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Medicine of the Pharaohs
For Every Malady a Cure
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Imhotep--Father
of Medicine |
Of all the
branches of science pursued in ancient Egypt, none achieved such
popularity as medicine as it was based on an integrated
scientific methodology and a system of medical schools. Under
this system, the first of its kind in human history, the first
school of medicine dated back to the first Dynasty followed by
other reputed schools such as Per Bastet in the New Kingdom and
at Abydos and Sais in the late period.
The first civilization known to have had an extensive study of
medicine and to leave written records of its practices and
procedures was that of ancient Egypt. The oldest extant Egyptian
medical texts are six papyri from the period between 2000 B.C.
and 1500 B.C.: the Kahun Medical Papyrus, the Ramesseum IV and
Ramesseum V Papyri, the Edwin Smith Surgical Papyrus, The Ebers
Medical Papyrus and the Hearst Medical Papyrus. These texts,
most of them based on older texts dating possibly from 3000
B.C., are comparatively free of the magician's approach to
treating illness. Egyptian medicine influenced the medicine of
neighbouring cultures, including the culture of ancient Greece.
From Greece, its influence spread onward, thereby affecting
Western civilization significantly.
Medical Training
Physicians
learnt their profession at schools called Houses of Life. They
were no doubt given some practical experience, but chiefly they
had to study what was already written. They used to administer
their treatments in accordance with a written law composed by
earlier famous physicians. Medical texts were used not only as a
fount of professional knowledge but also as a safeguard against
possible failure.
Categories of Physicians
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Medical papyrus.
Wellcome Library, London |
Priests were the first to practice medicine as some doctors
belonged to the priesthood. Some again were counted among the
scribes, as shown in such titles as "chief doctor and scribe of
the word of God. Many enjoyed ecclesiastical as well as lay
titles. Like other professions, doctors had their own hierarchy.
Besides ordinary doctors there were senior doctors, inspectors,
overseers and masters of physicians and the Chief of Physicians
of the South and the North, a kind of minister of health. Royal
and palace doctors had special hierarchy and titles. There was
even a degree of specialization quite remarkable for the time.
Each physician used to treat one disease, and no more. There
were plenty of physicians everywhere. Some were eye-doctors,
some dealt with the head, others with teeth or the abdomen, and
some with hidden maladies. Only members of the high strata of
society were allowed to learn and practice this honourable
profession. Moreover, a physician had to learn the science of
drugs especially botany. Ancient Egyptians held physicians in so
much high esteem that they raised Emote, the great physician
(2700 BC) after his death to a sacred status as the god of
medicine.
Historical Glimpse
According to the ancient historian Billing, Egyptians used to
examine bodies of the dead to know the cause of death. This
should not look strange for such people, traditionally
accustomed, as they were, to thorough pursuit of knowledge.
According to the American historian Breasted, an authority on
ancient Egyptian history, ancient Egyptian surgeons were highly
skilled as shown in inscriptions. Clean wounds were treated by
stitching and adhesive bandages. Other wounds were treated by
approximating edges on the first day then with honey and
astringent herbs. Moreover, fractures were successfully treated
with splints. They used many methods to diagnose pregnancy and
to know the gender of embryo before birth. They were the first
to use Arabian gum in birth control. They were the first to use
delivery stool, with special attention to paediatrics and the
patient nutrition. It also appears that for some people, at
least, there was a system of free medical aid. Ancient Egyptian
chemists equally excelled in preparing and extracting drugs from
mineral, botanical and, animal substances. However ancient
Egyptian pharmacopoeia was mainly based on herbs especially
vegetables and other foods. Drugs were used in pills and
ointment form and drops. Dressings and deodorant preparations
were also used. This is clearly shown in the Ebers papyrus which
includes names of medical herbs of great medical benefit.
Diagnosis Methods
It is both interesting and surprising to know that the diagnosis
methods currently used in the medical profession are no much
different than those used by ancient Egyptian physicians several
centuries ago.
According to the Berlin Papyrus No. 154, an ancient report reads
as follows:
The
patient suffers a great epigastric pain. He feels a heavy, hot
and inflamed body. He complains of being unable to tolerate his
clothes and feels they do not warm him. He feels thirsty during
the night. His saliva has the taste of unripe fruits. His
muscles pain him as if he walked for a long distance.
Conception of Human Body
The Egyptians conception of the human body, then, was as a
network of interconnecting channels and analogous to the
branches of the Nile and the artificial canals of their own
country. Notions of physiology and disease were all anchored in
the concept of the heart as the centre of the organism. The
heart was one's partner: it spoke to a person in his or her
solitude. It was at the same time the engine of all the bodily
functions, not only of one cardinal function, the circulation,
as modern science revealed. From the heart proceeded channels
(metu) linking all parts of the body together. These channels,
the Egyptians believed, conveyed not only the blood, but also
air (reaching the heart from the nose, they thought), tears,
saliva, mucus, sperm, urine, nutriment and feces, as well as
harmful substances conceived to be the agents of pain and
illness. Not only blood vessels were considered as metu, but
also the respiratory tract, tear duct, ducts of various glands,
spermatic duct, the muscles, tendons and ligaments.
GODDESS SEKHMET
As early as the 3rd Dynasty, there were already individuals
corresponding roughly to the modern concept of a doctor. There
were also surgeons who were known as the "Priests of Sekhmet",
as well as the ancient equivalent of dental and veterinary
practitioners.
The somewhat destructive and powerful lion headed goddess of
war, Sekhmet was also considered to be the supreme deity of
healing. The Priests of Sekhmet were the specialists of the day
in medicine and surgery. A number of medical papyri survive
today and these have provided us with a wealth of information
concerning the Egyptians knowledge of medicine, anatomy and
physiology.The Ebers medical
papyrus 
Originally over twenty metres long, the Ebers Papyrus consisted
of a list of some 876 prescriptions and remedies for ailments
such as wounds, stomach complaints, gynaecological problems and
skin irritations. Prescriptions were made up in proportions
according to fractions which were based on parts of the eye of
Horus, ranging from 1/64 to 1/2.
The Ebers Papyrus is primarily an internal medical reference,
although anatomical and physiological references are also
included. 877 recipes and 400 different drugs were described,
although for some unknown reason the scribe who wrote it did not
finish the papyrus, and ended in mid sentence.
The
Edwin Smith medical papyrus c.1600 BC
Thought to be the work of a doctor associated with a pyramid
building workforce, this five metre papyrus deals mainly with
problems such as broken bones, dislocations and crushings. Each
of the 48 cases documented are divided into categories: "an
ailment which I will treat", "an ailment with which I will
contend" and "an ailment not to be treated".
The symptoms of each of the documented cases are described in
the papyrus, and where possible a remedy or cure is prescribed.
The doctor writing the papyrus was aware of the circulation of
blood throughout the body and clearly recognised that the
condition of the heart could be judged by the patient's pulse.
This papyrus includes a vast experience in fractures that can
only be acquired at a site where accidents were extremely
numerous, for instance, as during the building of the pyramids.
The Kahun medical papyrus c.1900 BC
The oldest yet discovered, and dating from the reign of
Amenemhat III, the Kahun Medical Papyrus describes methods of
diagnosing pregnancy and the sex of the unborn, toothache during
pregnancy, diseases and various ailments of women, and is
particularly concerned with the womb and determination of
fertility.
Methods of contraception are also given, such as the rather
unpleasant consumption of "excrement of crocodile mixed with
sour milk", together with remedies for urinary problems,
problems in the abdomen and kidneys, and aching limbs with pain
in the sockets of the eyes.
Other medical
papyri
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The Hearst Medical Papyrus |
The Hearst Medical Papyrus
dates to the first half of the second millennium BC. It
contains, in hieratic Egyptian writing (a cursive form of
hieroglyphic writing), eighteen columns with medical
prescriptions. The ailments for which cures are offered
range from "a tooth which falls out" (Col. I, l. 7) and
"remedy for treatment of the lung" (Col. IV, l. 8) to bites
by human beings (Col. II, ll. 6–7), and pigs and hippopotami
(Col. XVI, ll. 5–7). |
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The Berlin
Papyrus: |
This
contains the earliest known pregnancy test of "barley and
emmer". " ... The woman must moisten it with urine every
day ... if both grow, she will give birth. If the barley
grows it means a male child. If the emmer grows it will mean
a female child. If neither grows, she will not give birth." |
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The Ramesseum
Papyri |
They
contain sections on diseases of the eyes, gynaecology,
diseases of children, muscles and tendons. |
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The Brooklyn Papyrus: |
Deals at
great length with snakebites. It speaks about remedies to
drive out poison from snakes, scorpions and tarantulas.
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The Chester Beatty
VI Papyrus: |
Concerned
only with the diseases and ailments of the anus and rectum. |
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The London Papyrus: |
One of
the best examples of the Egyptian approach to healing,
consisting of a combination of magical spells, rituals and
practical prescriptions, all of which would have been
considered equally essential to the recovery of the patient. |
Coptic medical codex |
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A Look at the Ancient History of Alexandria
The Medical
Tradition of a Great City |
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“For in that land (Egypt) the
fruitful earth bears drugs in plenty, some good and some
dangerous; and there every man is a physician and acquainted
with such lore beyond all mankind.” (Homer, 8th century
BC) “… As for Isis, the Egyptians say that she was the
discoverer of many health giving drugs and was greatly
versed in the science of healing;…In proof of this, as they
say, they advance not legends, as the Greeks do, but
manifests facts; for practically the entire inhabited world
is their witness, in that it eagerly contributes to the
honours of Isis because she manifests herself in healings.” (Diodorus of
Sycily, 1st century BC)
“…studies in the art of healing,
whose help is often required in this
life of ours, which is neither frugal
nor sober, are so enriched from day
to day, that although a physician’s
work itself indicates it, yet in place
of every testimony it is enough to
commend his knowledge of the art,
if he has said that he was trained at
Alexandria”.
Ammianus Marcellinus
4th century AD
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The Egyptian Background of The Medical School of Alexandria
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The Egyptian
physician Imhotep had a special cult as patron
saint of medicine during the Greco-Roman
period,
the Greeks identified him with Asclepius. It is
suggested that statues of the eminent
personalities of ancient Egypt be placed in all
libraries in Egypt. |
Clement of Alexandria describes the procession of the
priests holding the 42 books of knowledge attributed to
Thoth/ Hermes, the books containing the hymns to the gods,
the hymns to the king, 4 books of astronomy, 10 books
relating to the ceremonies of worship, 10 books
concerning the gods and the education of the priests; 36 books
which were learnt by the priests and 6 books
contained treatises on medicine covering anatomy, medicine,
surgery, ophthalmology, gynaecology, and therapeutics. The
fact that these books were known in Alexandria in the 2nd
century AD reflects the rich background of Egyptian
knowledge on which the scientific tradition of
Alexandria grew up during the Ptolemaic period. One of the
glories of ancient Egypt was medicine.
Two important
papyri on ancient Egyptian medicine discovered c.1863 AD at
Luxor are the Edwin Smith papyrus and the Ebers
papyrus; both go back to c. 1550 BC. The Edwin Smith
Surgical Papyrus was published by J.H. Breasted (Chicago
1930)
it is believed that its original source goes back to 3000 BC. The papyrus,
describing 48 types of injury and disease, indicates
awareness of the pulse, its relation to the heart, and
possibly the movement of blood. It is the earliest known
reference to the heart and circulation. The Ebers Papyrus
contains 110 pages and is the best preserved of the medical
papyri of ancient Egypt. Both papyri give a clear idea of the
development of rational medical thinking in
ancient Egypt. Early Greek writers like Homer (8th century
BC) ascribe the invention of the medical art to the
Egyptians. Egyptian physicians established a high ethical
code that passed down to us in the Hippocratic Oath. Textual
parallels between the Hippocratic medicine and some Egyptian
medical papyri have been established. According to J.B. de
C.M.
Saunders (The
Transitions from Ancient Egyptian to Greek Medicine): “Of
much greater importance to us is the recognition that many
of the statements on pregnancy to be found in the
‘Hippocratic Collection’ and entitled ‘On Diseases of Women’
and ‘On Sterility’ are directly derived from Egyptian
sources. One of the most extraordinary examples is the
almost word-for-word correspondence which exists between a
passage in the Hippocratic work ‘On Sterility’ and one found
in both Papyrus Carlsberg VIII and papyrus Kuhn…”
According to Herodotus (5th century BC) each doctor in Egypt
was “… responsible for the treatment of only one disease…
some specializing in diseases of the eyes, others of the
head, others of the teeth, others of the stomach, and so
on…”. The renown of the Egyptian
medicine in the 6th century BC was such that it was often
the custom to choose the chief physician of the imperial
court in Persia from Egypt.
Medicine at Alexandria
A papyrus of the 2nd century BC shows that the Egyptian
physicians taught medicine at Alexandria. Egyptian embalmers
were at work at Alexandria and they were known for their
excellent knowledge of anatomy. The Egyptian medical
tradition that dissection of the body is an essential
prerequisite for practice passed from Alexandria to Rome.
The physician Rufus of Ephesus (2nd century AD)
who visited Egypt wrote that the Egyptian physicians named
the sutures of the skull although they understood
Greek poorly.
Plinus the Younger
(Letters, 10.6), a member of the Roman nobility, wrote to
the Emperor Trajan (98-117 AD) for “… making Harpocras my
physician a citizen of Rome… I was informed by those who are
better skilled in these affairs than I pretend to be, that
as he is an Egyptian (from Memphis), I ought first to have
obtained for him the
freedom of Alexandria, before he was made free of Rome. I
confess, indeed, as I was ignorant of any difference in
this case between Egyptians and other aliens… it is an
ignorance I cannot regret, since it affords me an
opportunity of receiving
from you a double obligation
in favour of the same person”.
And so
Harpocras was made citizen of Alexandria
and Rome. Note that the Egyptians did not have the right
enjoyed by other aliens to become citizens
of Rome; they did not even
have this right in the cities of Egypt!!
Eudemus of Alexandria
(240 BCE)
He was an anatomist who studied the nervous system, human
osteology, female sex organs, and experimented in
embryological studies.
 Galen
(2nd century AD) is the best example of what the excellence
of the Egyptian medical tradition of Alexandria can produce.
He studied medicine in Alexandria and left many works
including his books on anatomy that were originally fifteen
in number. He has preserved for us many aspects of the
Egyptian medical tradition. According to C.M. Saunders:
“…The Egyptian opinion on the superfluities and their
putrefaction was absorbed by the Greeks and modified to form
an integral part of almost all their later theories.
Even Galen in his elaboration of the humeral doctrine… used
the concept to explain the fevers”.
Palladius
(Lausiac History, 4th century AD) mentions his encounter in
Alexandria with Saint Isidore the Physician “… a
wonderful man, distinguished in every respect, both as
regards character and knowledge… hospitaller of the Church
of Alexandria”, and with “… the most holy
Macarius, the priest and superintendent
of the hospital for cripples… the hospital had women on
the first floor and men on the ground floor”. Egyptian
scientists and physicians were active in the 6th century AD,
like Sergius and
Harun the Priest who was the chief
physician at Alexandria and editor-in-chief of a periodical
medical publication. When the Arabs invaded Egypt in 639 AD,
a school of medicine was still active at Alexandria where
the Syriac language was used, and indication that many
students from the East-Mediterranean countries where
studying medicine at Alexandria until the 7th century.
Finally it is worth to mention that the Egyptian
pharmacopoeia based on herbal medicine was used by all the
people of the Antiquity, the middle Ages until the 18th
century, and is being rediscovered in modern times.
•Published in Watani International
newspapers 18 August 2002
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